Connective Pedagogy: Elder Epistemology, Oral Tradition and Community

Infusing American Indian knowledge into Teacher Education through the Ed pipeline

Follow for extended description

The fusion model (based on what we did in Minneapolis public schools) I brought to UWGB that occurred over a period of time with college faculty is explained and summarized by Lisa Poupart. Lisa is my young colleague in First Nations Studies at the University of Wisconsin, Green Bay. When I came to Green Bay after a visiting professorship at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, UWGB did not have a major in Indian Studies. I wrote a brief, Considerations for reorganizing an Indian studies program, a plan in action (Christensen, 2001) as I thought not having a major was unfortunate as we were located in a part of WI that is home to three Tribes (Stockbridge Munsee, Menominee and Oneida Tribes) of eleven federallyrecognized Tribes that are in Wisconsin. As an Ojibwe ‘visiting’ in other Tribal territory, I thought it important to have a major concentration that centered on the three ‘home’ Tribes as one could look at Universities in Wisconsin, note the Tribal territory one was in and then ensure there is information about these tribes at the University nearby. I spoke to the need to have both Menominee and Mohican languages added to our major as soon as feasible. Currently, Oneida language is taught at UWGB and is an important part of the major requirement. Also our Oral Concentration (OC) effort (discussed later) within the major requirement is a natural conduit to working with Tribal elders near-by. This did not mean that students could not work with other Tribal Elders. During my time at UWGB one student worked with a Medicine Elder from Canada, and another worked with a Lakota Elder from Pine Ridge. Lisa provides further detail regarding the OC in her chapter. Relative to the major as we worked out the details, I suggested we call our American-Indian knowledge base, pillars as that is what I saw as a way of describing what students learn about American Indians from us. In addition I was interested in adding something to the major that I had not heard or seen anywhere else (although certainly this is not a new idea, and it may exist elsewhere); that is, to add what I labeled Oral concentration or in brief, OC. An Oneida student was interested in working with elders to improve his oral education so I posed an ‘oral concentration’ meaning that he was to concentrate on elder teachers in a semester (for 12 credits) as his only class. The discussion for this was begun during my first semester at UWGB, with the new course ready by 2001. A copy of the first syllabus and course description is still in my files. Lisa Poupart discusses the OC more in detail in her chapter.

The pedagogical cultural methodology discussed in this book utilizes the “Tribal 3r’s” of oral learning: reciprocity, relationship and respect with the added fourth r, responsibility added at appropriate intervals. Elemental constructs such as Experience, Participation and Observation are fundamentals that form the learning and teaching context. The core value emphasized in the form is personal sovereignty/autonomy or independence which means the notion of choices for the student is an important adjunct of the methodology. In a slightly awkward sense it is a paradigm shift of sorts loosely utilizing aspects of grounding theory techniques discussed by C. Urquhard (2000) based on the grounded theory method which is “a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 24).

The three Tribal R’s of respect, reciprocity and relationship are the initially visible grid-lines in the frame of the pedagogical abode which is then fused with appropriate content, and the fourth r, responsibility is added or emphasized at appropriate intervals, therefore although important and germane as part of the grid, responsibility is perhaps less visible at varying times as responsibility is recognized as an individual matter, with the individual learning, practicing and demonstrating responsibility at a personal pace. The core value of personal sovereignty, participation learning and observation and community/kinship-type interaction from oral tradition provide the structural pillars. The 3 tribal ‘r’s encourages usage of the bonding method with students, a strategy that employs respect between teacher and student as a base premise (as mentioned in gap literature). Such a cultural context needs to be part of instructional program rationality. Newman et al. (2001) define such a strategy as “a set of interrelated programs for students and staff that are guided by a common framework for curriculum, instruction, assessment and learning climate and that are pursued over a sustained period” (p. 297). The authors suggest that such an approach may make a difference in school improvement.

Conceptual points

This paradigm that features methods or techniques used in oral/traditional teaching/learning is based on the indigenous wholistic worldview and its values with discussed techniques harmonious within that world view. Deloria and Wildcat(2001) note “The Indian view of the world tends to see unities both in the structure of physical things and in the behavior of things, and we have recently been describing it as “holistic” in that it tries to present a comprehensive picture in which the parts and their value are less significant than the larger picture and its meaning. That is not to say that Indians could not deal with specific items of knowledge” (p. 155). Each individual will experience the values and behaviors differently than another albeit within the worldview purview. Cultural differences among Tribes exists, yet behaviors reflects the holistic world view. As individuals design, put into practice, and hone various methods/techniques based on the holistic world view, each will amend, visualize and experiment within the praxis, much as teachers do in the current method(s) (reflecting the western world view) practiced in schools today. The following are conceptual points for this teaching/learning method and its techniques.

Participation learning

A.O. Kawaglely and Ray Barnhardt (1999) tell us that:

While western science and education tend to emphasize compartmentalized knowledge which is often decontextualized and taught in the detached setting of a classroom or laboratory, Native people have traditionally acquired their knowledge through direct experience in the natural environment. For them, the particulars come to be understood in relation to the whole, and the “laws” are continually tested in the context of everyday survival. Western thought also differs from Native thought in its notion of competency. In western terms, competency is based on predetermined ideas of what a person should know, which is then measured indirectly through various forms of “objective” tests. Such an approach does not address whether that person is really capable of putting the knowledge into practice. .Native sense, competency has an unequivocal relationship to survival or extinction. You either have it, or you don’t, and survival is the ultimate measure” (p.117).

Students are involved in the process in an overt and observable way. Teacher is not so much a lecturer, as she is a coach/expert/Elder. Students teach and help each other using a total and small group process. When appropriate, teacher involves students in teaching particular concepts through presentations by students to other student groups. Thus they are heavily involved in learning through teaching and participating in learning. Students do learn part of the materials (that they present) very well, and the rest (learned from other student presentations) may not be learned or remembered as well, nevertheless, students do employ ways of teaching reflecting their age group/interests, and students do tend to find these more interesting (perhaps) than teacher lectures on a daily basis. Teacher learns also through this method, by experiencing reciprocity through the teaching-learning method. As they hear, from students, assigned materials, they ponder and perhaps gain insights from the students’ presentations.

Participation learning was the way of learning practiced by Indians in earlier times and continues to be used by our traditional elders as a normal way to teach. Teaching the content through oral presentations emulate in a slight way, the teachings methods of our elders. Elders pass information in an oral traditional way. Learners demonstrate viable skills suitable for oral learning, learners listen with body, mind and spirit, they are quiet as they listen, showing respect for the oral transmitter and they seek to learn how to interact when, and how with the oral transmitter. The process is an experiencing process, utilizing participant learning. During my last semester, 2010, Spring, in Green Bay, one of the groups presenting utilized a game that was such fun!

I asked Andrew Geiwitz, Josh Kasinskas, Jessica Kuehlmann, Amber Maile, Emile Ose, Alesha Roth, Jason Vanman, and Karl Weyenberg (all from various towns in Wisconsin) to describe the game, and they did in answer to my email in June of 2010, “For our group’s presentation, we had a class participation game that involved text messaging using the students’ cellphones. Here is how the game would work. Our group has our PowerPoint presentation up on the projector. When we got to the part of our presentation that included classroom participation, we explained the game to our classmates. Each group would be given the cellphone number of one of us presenters. Then we would put up slides with multiple choice questions. The groups could discuss amongst themselves, and then one person from each group would send a text message containing their answer to the presenter whose cellphone number they were given. We, the presenters, would then make a note of who answered correctly or incorrectly. We would go through all the slides, making sure every group had a chance to answer each of the questions. After each question, we had a slide showing the correct answer. At the end, we would announce which groups answered the most correctly. We thought this method was a nice idea, since everyone had a chance to answer each question and could attempt to apply what they learned from our presentation.” Needless to say, the students loved fooling around with cellphones as part of a lesson, and of course they learned from each other both within their small groups and within the total large group during the game. During my classes, the students came up with fun, creative interactive ways to participate with the rest of the class. Participation was required with the others in the class, and their grade included points for participation. Too, they learned from each other within the form of participation each group came up with. I was so impressed with a group in a class I taught on Ojibwe history. They made a game based on the migration route of the Ojibwe from the East to the Midwest using points of information provided in the text for a floor map game that students could take turns working on, and getting prizes for making a correct move. There was lots of laughing and moving during class on that evening class in Ojibwe history. Their natural sense of competition could be utilized in making the participation fun, although I stressed the participation activity must reflect the material they presented. They were usually so keen to not be boring as they taught the lesson; and just about always, they were not. No, my classroom resounded with laughter and answers called out, or however, whatever the participation/action called for by the group in charge of the lesson during that class.

The beliefs, philosophy, epistemology and oral tradition found in a holistic world are reflected in its educational practices, learning and teaching pedagogy and interrelated activities with others. Techniques for learning and teaching vary from Tribe to Tribe yet tend to remain within the purview of the holistic measure of its oral tradition. Storytelling used by most tribes to teach its young is an example of a pervasive technique that reinforces and supports holistic values throughout the lifetime of the learner.

Personal sovereignty/Independence or personal autonomy

J.F. Bryde, 1971, noted in his book on Modern Indian Psychology (p. 39) that “Individual freedom means that you yourself decide to do the right thing in order to survive. Right from the beginning, you should memorize that full definition well because every part of it is important if you are to understand the right meaning of individual freedom. …In the Indian system, the person himself, whether he is a child or a grown-up, makes his own decisions and no one forces him into making a decision.”

Personal sovereignty or autonomy is a recognized core value among many Tribes within the holistic worldview; albeit with cultural differences among Tribes within that worldview and some have left the traditional world view altogether, and espouse the commonly held dominant linear world view (that in itself is an expression of personal sovereignty).

Rupert Ross, explains “The Ethic of non-interference, To begin with, (he says) I cannot do better than to quote directly from Dr. Brant (a Mohawk, and a practicing psychiatrist who spent a great deal of time exploring the underpinnings of both traditional and present Native societies) “The Ethnic of Non-Interference is probably one of the oldest and one of the most pervasive of all the ethics by which we Native people live. It has been practiced for twenty-five or thirty thousand years, but it is not very well articulated. The person who explained it best was a white woman, an anthropologist, named Rosalie Wax…” This principle essentially means that an Indian will never interfere in any way with the rights, privileges and activities of another person (p. 12). …This principle of non-interference is all-pervasive throughout our entire culture. We are very loath to confront people. We are very loath to give advice to anyone if the person is not specifically asking for advice. To interfere or even comment on their behavior is considered rude, (p. 13)”.

One way of looking at this idea is to note that many Indians favor an indirect approach or interaction as a form of non-interference; yet the behaviors practiced as indirect may differ from Tribe to Tribe. To employ personal sovereignty as a technique, students or learners, for example, are provided with choices, as much as is possible within the schooling structural system. They choose which group to work with, & when the teacher is comfortable with it, an exam process that might include some oral exams with the total group or within the smaller groups. And within certain classes, it might be possible for the teacher to provide choices within time elements. In a college class for example, it is possible for the instructor to allow groups preparing for a presentation to decide for themselves when they want to meet to prepare meaning the group could decide to meet at a time other than class time as listed as long as the group put in as much time as was provided each group. So, although I gave the students one class period to prepare, in actually they need not meet on the Wednesday class date, but could choose to meet on the weekend, or another evening, or during the day.

Brendtro, Brokenleg, and Van Brockern (1992) say independence is an old practicing value, “A feasibility study by the French was highly pessimistic, concluding that any captain trying to command a company of Indian soldiers would be told curtly that he should do it himself, which of course would be a very bad example for French troops. The explorers concluded that Indians must have some defect in the capacity for obedience. “(p. 32).

Relationship

Students are in groups (which by their very (interactive) nature emulate community) as much as is comfortable for the teacher. This allows them to foster relationships throughout the class time, as well as foster relationship with the teacher, as he/she gets involved with groups through a small-size interaction. It is easy for the teacher to begin classes with time for group discussion (on particular selected topics) during which time instructor is able to move among groups, discuss items with them, or just listen to them discuss the topic. Students must solve several relationship functions through the group process. Sometimes that is not easy, as a group may find itself in conflict. However, students and groups can be guided and directed on how to work through such conflicts especially as conflict with others is a normal part of life and how we learn to work with it is an important part of enjoying a comfortable existence in society. Part of the process can involve entering and leaving groups at intervals relative to class or group choices & teacher rules. Grouping in class format provides for an experience in interrelatedness or community, while also engaging in participation learning, each learns while participating with another in the small group, and within the large group. With task fulfilled through group process, group effort on the task allows for each individual to learn the task quite well. Listening to other groups present (teach) information is a way of learning the material, with the probable outcome being that students may retain either more information, or specific useful information through this process.

Respect

One easy, simple way of beginning to foster the behavior of respect is to insist that students and teacher practice/learn how to listen to one another. Our elders teach us we need to assume a suitable listening stance. In the case of the classroom, it should be overt, that is anyone observing will know the individual is listening to someone. The teacher can insist on a respectful listening stance. Some of the behaviors that come to mind might be to ensure that cell phones are turned off during presentations by a group to other groups. A teacher can also model an appropriate listening stance simply by turning one’s body toward the speaker and just listen. A simple exercise, interactive listening among group members and between groups through an integrated learning technique can be used for this effort. In one such exercise groups were asked to read a short article, then in each group, each person must provide a short statement relative to the article and show it by checking name on the classroom attendance sheet. After group discussion, the instructor holds a total group discussion on the topic with each group providing its statement on the topic.

Smith (1999) explains, ”From indigenous perspectives ethical codes of conduct serve partly the same purpose as the protocols which govern our relationship with each other and the environment. The term “respect” is consistently used by indigenous peoples to underscore the significance of our relationships and humanity. Through respect the place of everyone and everything in the universe is kept in balance and harmony. Respect is a reciprocal, shared, constantly interchanging principle which is expressed through all aspects of social behavior” (p. 120). The seven principles of the holistic world view (discussed in the form section of this chapter) are the principle of the circle, gratitude, equality, peaceful co-existence, connectedness, sustenance and balance. Great importance is placed on the principle of balance which is sought and practiced in the wholistic world. One feels good and right with the world when in balance. Kenny (2004) in her very informative paper discussing the holistic worldview notes how important balance is, “Elders are constantly reminding contemporary Aboriginal people about the importance of keeping our lives in balance. How “balance” is defined is, to a great degree, determined by people in specific bio-regions, with specific languages and cultural practices that reflect the land on which they live “(p. 8). As well, “holistic” is interpreted in specific ways depending on the location and context of each Nation, tribe or band. That is why research of any type demands considerable consultation and culturally appropriate protocol” (p. 8).

Reciprocity

Individual skills can be ascertained, and then used, within the group to promote group goals for learning and process thereto. This helps students feel connected, especially those who do not want, know how to, or like talking in class. Community is relationship. “It is the context within which we live and work. It is what we strive for with all our being. It is inclusive rather than exclusive, seeking to fold everyone into a relationship, one that ensures that all living things are in balance” reminds Cajete in his very helpful and interesting book on native science as he discusses how we are all related in the section of that name (p. 86). Individual gifts such as sketching, making puzzles, designing games, or having a fun way to memorize are helpful and appropriate skills useful to the group process and product. Teacher and students interact and work in a reciprocal way. In a class, for example, one of the students used a wheelchair to get around. However, he was greatly skilled with computer and he worked with his group using this skill. Soon, the students showed great awareness of what he brought the group, and really took care that he got to the classroom and seated within the group comfortably as well as helping him to his next class.

Responsibility

Elder teachers work with us in our beginning stance of learning. We are not expected to be the same as others or be where they are in the learning range. They work with us as we are. As we move through the spiral of learning we experience our ways and means of responsibility. In this way of learning students are not expected to immediately demonstrate responsibility yet as the teacher (and possibly other students) model responsibility wherein for example, the teacher is always on time because he/she set the time both for beginning and ending the class, provides documents as stated, the student begins to see his/her responsible areas. They also experience what happens when they are not responsible; for example, not being ready for one’s group presentation. It affects the whole group, and not in a good way. As the class progresses, the student is expected to be more responsible with teacher reminders at intervals relative to responsibility practice.

Oral learning

Oral presentations (approximating traditional oral learning through practicing passing knowledge in an oral way, and listening to the learning) assembles a cultural context that is designed to provide students with an experience resembling traditional holistic experience of Indian Tribes. Tribal people value experience; therefore they value the Elders, who by their very nature are the most experienced beings. As Brown (1988) notes, ‘what is anterior in time has a certain superiority over that which comes later,’ and it is this belief, he says, “that accounts for the enormous respect shown to the aged among Native American peoples” (p. 71). This ancient way of learning fostered by Tribal ways/world view through Elder epistemology can be experienced in the classroom.

• Oral presentations by groups, who choose materials among themselves.
• Memory Circle is utilized to learn, practice and foster oral remembering skills.
• Oral exams are used from time to time, (I used oral exams exclusively) with the practice of interactive grading.

In this technique, the instructor provides the group with a grade based on what she saw in the presentation, and then the group is asked if they did something ‘good’ that the instructor did not mention or perhaps notice. As the instructor is not with the group when they prepare it is often possible that the group learns and practices how to work with one another during the group prep that may not be always visible to the instructor. When they say what they did, the instructor is then able to raise their grade dependent on the information provided and whether in retrospect the instructor was able to see its effect. Thus, grading becomes interactive.

• Listening is overtly taught, with a listening stance pursued, therefore one is not shaking a foot, tapping an object, texting, yawning, talking to someone else (and so forth), and if an occasional note may be taken, it is done quickly so as not to distract oneself from a thorough listening stance being deployed. When it became necessary to have the groups practice listening, I would give an exercise on it. One evening class that met weekly was given such a task. Each student was to choose someone of his choice, tell the person he/she was going to listen, and the person talking was to ‘grade’ the person doing the listening. At the next class, each student presented his/her listening exercise during memory circle. Some choose their moms, others, girl friend or boy friend, or others, friends or work colleagues. The discussion was such fun, as they told how people reacted. One girl said her mother was floored by her attentive listening stance, said she got an ‘a’ for a grade, and then the mom asked if they could do it again sometime soon!
• Oral presentations by groups, who choose and schedule what to teach to others; for example, a group may come up with a creative, fun way to learn the multiplication tables.
• Discussion is taught, encouraged, and required through the group process. As Smith (1999) notes “The processes of consultation, collective meetings, open debate and shared decision making are crucial aspects of tribal research practices” (p. 129) with the notion of responsibility implied within.

One way to encourage discussion is to promote it at every opportunity, including the time when students first enter the room. Ask them to always gather in their individual group, and to either begin discussing the materials, or if preferred, just talk about anything of interest to each other including non-school work, as it takes a while for groups to ‘bond’, and any effort to that effect is actually class work. During this time, students can be doing some necessary task, such as collect homework from the evening before, or start collecting attendance signatures and when the instructor comes in he/she can go around and speak briefly with each group, thereby using names, and paying attention to students, while collecting attendance or like tasks. Students like this activity, and why wouldn’t they? More formal discussion periods can easily be built into the circle method, such as, during the school-year-start during the linear lectures discussing how for example, how groups work, how chosen and what materials are used. It helps to stop after 15 or 20 minutes, and give groups an opportunity to discuss what they heard, and again, tell at least one thing during a class go-around discussion. During the time provided for the groups to decide on what they are remembering, instructor can go around to each group, and see if there are any questions, and to ascertain if enough time is spent on the activity. Most groups finish quickly, but it is important to give the odd group several more minutes if needed, as everyone cannot finish exactly at the same time and this effort reinforce the notion of personal sovereignty. Memory Circle, a technique discussed in Christensen, 2004 is utilized at regular intervals to learn, practice and foster oral remembering skills. In this technique, groups are asked to respond with something remembered from learning presentations, usually after sometime has passed, such as, for example, at the next class period. During remembering time, each student either provides a comment, or if he/she cannot remember anything, pass, verbally, or instructor can give the option of coming back to that person. The student is reminded to listen and learn from peers so that when the teacher comes back, the student is able to give at least one lesson learned from others. This latter technique usually works, especially as repetition is a technique of oral instruction, and it is good for students to repeat something someone else said (showing respect for learning). Returning to a person after a period of time allows the person to listen to others, and be reminded in that way, or at least to say something that perhaps another said, in another way. The issue of each person saying something allows the individual to speak, which may not always happen in the grouping process unless it is an instruction; which it is at times for a particular technique I label, integrated learning wherein individuals speak but only after working with a group, and speaking from a group perspective. This technique begins with listening to individuals in a group, and proceeds to a spiral learning and listening between students and teacher which is what happens during memory circle. The teacher is in the middle of the circle where she listens to each student. She may make a comment, or add something or ask a question. The interactive spiral activity between student and teacher is reciprocal, models listening, and utilizes repetition of the learning materials in the process.

Form utilized in these methods

When possible it makes sense to foster congruent form and function. Students may not readily use circular or spiral forms in their presentation of materials (content) but after being shown various aspects of the circular form not limited to just physical characteristics, students will come up with beautiful, creative circular ways (context). Therefore it is important to set the context as well as the content of classes to reflect, reinforce and teach a worldview derived from oral tradition and Tribal world view. In this model, the content and context are deliberately construed in a congruent fashion remembering Brown’s (1988) reminder “American Indians traditions generally do not fragment experience into mutually exclusive dichotomies, but tend to stress modes of interrelatedness across categories of meaning, never losing sight of an ultimate wholeness” (p.71).

The seven principles of the holistic world view are an important basic in the methods and subsequent techniques used in practice. The seven principles provide guidance to humans in how to live and function with other living things. Humans need to listen to oral teachers frequently to understand the complexity contained within the fundamental simplicity of the principles.

• Principle of peaceful co-existence

Every life form has the right to exist as created. We are all a small part of the vast circle of living things, and it appears that when we know how to interact with each other appropriately we will live more comfortably and complete the life span within our being.

• Principle of Equality

Each life form is equal to the other. That does not mean we are all the same. We may have very different form and function yet all life forms have a purpose within the sacred circle of life.

• Principle of connectedness

All life is nourished and sustained, supported and energized by each other. All living things are connected in the web of life.

• Principle of Balance:

The natural essentials of Fire, Water, Earth and Air are the main elements that must exist in harmony to sustain other life forms. Each form of life is treated with respect. This means that in order to understand what respect is to another living thing, one must know first one’s own creation, how it works and then proceed to observe, understand other living things, what works for them, and seek a way to interact utilizing something important from each, that is look for and create a balance.

• Principle of the Circle

Whatever good is done is returned to the giver, unfortunately this rule also applies to negative energy. People who harm other living things bring harm to their own spirit. We need to protect our own spirit from negative energy.

• Principle of sustenance

Take only what is needed to survive. Taking more violates this law, and creates an imbalance that requires adjustment. When one has surplus, share it with other living things.

• Principle of gratitude

Give thanks. If the ability, capacity and willingness to give thanks is forgotten and not practiced, opportunities in many forms become limited. Human beings own nothing. For example, students and teacher can make sure the classroom looks as good as it did when the class began, thus giving thanks to those who clean it and keep it in order.

Techniques/strategies employed in these contextual methods:

Techniques and strategies used in the circle teaching method reflect learning and teaching utilized by elder teachers. An example is the seven principles cited above. The teachings are many and varied, as is the case in Academy-fostered techniques reflecting the linear world view. Circle methods include using questioning as a learning device, with required critical thinking and reflective skill elements utilized, yet questioning as a form of learning is muted compared to how it is used in academy techniques. When groups are first formed, for example, and are preparing to present information to others, the teacher uses critical thinking during the first cycle of presentations. After the group presents the other groups prepare a question that reflects critical thinking to the presenting group. While the groups are doing this, the teacher poses a question to the presenters, they use the time to prepare and give an answer to the teacher. The teacher is able to go around and check with each group to see if their question meets critical thinking attributes. It helps to give a listing of these to the groups to look and learn from during their preparation period. Thusly, the question form most students are familiar with, and have practiced during previous schooling is utilized during the first phase. During the second cycle questioning is not used, instead, the class is introduced to and learns to use memory circle.

Other techniques abound. A few have been discussed briefly, and some at length in subsequent chapters by the other authors to give a notion of the ways indigenous people incorporate cultural norms within teaching. In the end, of course, we want what others want for their children. We want them to be resilient, work, love and live in community and always keep in mind the work we must all do for the next generation. Our elders taught us that each generation works toward the next; as they did for us, we do for those coming after.

Summary of concepts

The method and techniques in oral traditional learning reflect the following concepts and are listed and repeated as an guide to keep in mind while reading the chapters in this book.

Conclusion

Cited in Brendtro et al. (1992) “Coopersmith (1967) observed that four basic components of self-esteem are significance, competence, power, and virtue: Significance is found in the acceptance, attention, and affection of others. To lack significance is to be rejected, ignored, and not to belong. Competence develops as one masters the environment. Success brings innate satisfaction and a sense of efficacy, while chronic failure stifles motivation. Power is shown in the ability to control one’s behavior and gain the respect of others. Those lacking power feel helpless ad without influence. Virtue is worthiness judged by values of one’s culture and of significant others. Without feelings of worthiness, life is not spiritually fulfilling. Traditional Native educational practices addressed each of these four bases of self-esteem: l/ significance was nurtured in a cultural milieu that celebrated the universal need for being; 2/ competence was ensured by guaranteed opportunities for mastery; 3/ power was fostered by encouraging the expression of independence; and 4/ virtue was reflected in the pre-eminent value of generosity” (pp.44-45).

The method and techniques discussed ask students and teacher to practice the art of respect within the teaching/learning mode utilizing reciprocal behavior toward one another thereby building relationships with each other and in doing so engage in community-like activities. One seeks to work in balance with another, to find ways to cooperate, lend a hand or assist each other as each learns from another.

As Brendtro et al. (1992) note “The benefits of cooperative learning in contrast to competition or individual learning are well documented. Research suggests that students’ attitudes toward teachers and peers will become more positive, student self-esteem will increase, and students will develop higher levels of prosocial abilities (i.e., empathy and altruism) and social skills (i.e., communication, conflict management, sharing). Studies report, too, that achievement levels of students increase when they participate in cooperative learning. There are even indications that achievement on computer-assisted learning tasks will be maximized when the instruction is structured cooperatively”(p. 100).

Oral Resources

Observation and participation with elder teachers provided the oral learning for the teaching method/techniques and include the following citations:

• Elder teachers, Bad River Indian Reservation. Wisconsin. 1940-1955.
• Individual Elder Teachers:

  Boyd, Raining, Mille Lacs Reservation, MN.

  Boyd, Grace, Mille Lacs Reservation, MN.

  Jackson, J. Leech Lake Reservation, MN. 1980-90 Courchene, David, Sagkeeng First Nation, Manitoba, Canada Sam, David ( Moosey) Mille Lacs Reservation, Minnesota Commanda, W., Ontario: oral teaching, 7^th Fire wampum.

  Ackley, Charles J., Sakoagon Reservation, WI

  Daniels, Don, Manitoba & Alberta, Canada

  Myers, Ruth, Duluth, MN and Grand Portage, MN.

  Gahbo, Arthur, Mille Lacs Reservation, MI

  Hunting Hawk, P. Rolling River Reserve, Manitoba, Canada Davids, Dorthy, Stockbridge-Munsee Reservation, WI

And many, many others throughout my life.

Endnotes

1. 1Ray Barnhardt gave me a copy of his paper, Creating a place for indigenous knowledge in education: The Alaska native knowledge network, at a conference we were both attending in Sante Fe, New Mexico on March 15-18, 2005. It was the Colloquium: Improving academic performance among Native American Students sponsored by the National Institutes of Health and organized by Dr. Wm. Demmert, Tlingit, Alaska. The quote is from p. 1 of the draft he so kindly shared with me. The paper was subsequently published (Barnhardt 2007). Barnhardt, R. (2007). Creating place for indigenous knowledge in education: The Alaska Native knowledge network. In G. Smith & D. Gruenewald (Eds.), Place-based education in the global age: Local diversity. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

References

• Barnhardt, R. (2007). Creating place for indigenous knowledge in education: The Alaska Native knowledge network. In G. Smith & D. Gruenewald (Eds.), Place-based education in the global age: Local diversity. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Brendtro, L.K., Brokenleg, M., Van Brockern, S. (1992). Reclaiming youth at risk: Our hope for the future. Bloomington IN: National Educational Service.
• Brown, J.E. (1988). The spiritual legacy of the American Indian. New York: The Crossroads Publishing Co.
• Bryde, J.F. (1971). Modern Indian psychology. Vermillion, SD: Institute of Indian Studies, The University of South Dakota.
• Cajete, G. (2000). Native Science: Natural Laws of interdependence. Sante Fe, NM : Clear Light Publishers.
• Christensen, Rosemary. (2004). Teaching within the circle: methods for an American Indian teaching and learning style, a Tribal paradigm (pp. 171-191). In Lea, V.& Helfand, J. (Eds.). 2004. Identifying race and transforming whiteness in the classroom. New York: Peter Lang.
• Christensen, Rosemary, (2004). The UWGB center for transformational instruction: diversity is more than a tang or an aftertaste. Unpublished paper.
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